What Kind of Democracy Do Citizens Want?

Citizens do not adhere to pure conceptions of democracy, which are often juxtaposed in theoretical and empirical work. Instead, they mix elements from different historical lineages of democracy. This paper examines citizens' attitudes towards democracy and their preferences for alternative sets of institutions and democratic innovations. Analysis begins with data from the European Social Survey's rotating module on democracy (ESS 6 and 10 from 2012 and 2020/1), which reveal broad support for core democratic principles such as free and fair elections and the rule of law. A distinction is made between support for a minimal core concept of democracy and more elaborate and diverse conceptions of democracy: in addition to liberal electoral democracy, most citizens also support socialist, populist, or direct elements of democracy. Using additional data from panel studies in Germany and the United States, the analysis demonstrates that a dimension ranging from institutionalist-representative to direct, people-centred conceptions of democracy structures citizens' preferences in different country contexts. Regarding preferences for institutional design, findings from a vignette study conducted in the United States and Germany indicate that in both countries, the system considered most democratic combines direct citizen participation in lawmaking with a deliberative mode of decision-making, a delegated role for trustees, and judicial review. The paper concludes that citizens in different consolidated democracies value social and political equality highly and expect both responsive and deliberative democratic decision-making.