The Struggle from Within – Gender Obstacles in the Political Party

Political parties are gendered spaces where gendered rules and norms shape the experiences of women candidates. This study aims at understanding the interplay between “official” party rules and the “real” party practices. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study examines the intra-party determinants of women’s descriptive representation by focusing on the presence and experiences of women party candidates in 32 parliamentary democracies. It answers the research question of how intra-party factors affect the selection of women candidates and their experiences during campaigning? First, the study investigates the relationship between the inclusiveness of party selectorates, party rules, and the share of women candidates across 227 political parties worldwide. The findings reveal that inclusive candidate selection procedures, combined with the adoption of gender equality rules, positively impact the share of women candidates, particularly in parties where women hold significant presence in leadership and membership. Second, the study delves into intra-party factors that may hinder women’s representation, using the 2023 local elections in the Netherlands as a case study. Semi-structured interviews with women candidates from ten political parties and participant observation during electoral campaigns uncover both formal and informal dynamics that shape women’s descriptive representation. This mixed-methods design allows for a nuanced analysis of the contrast between the "official" party rules and the "real" intra-party practices that influence women candidates’ political trajectories. The findings highlight the persistent gendered nature of party organization, where entrenched gender norms create obstacles for women seeking elected office. In this context, two key insights emerge: (1) the critical role of party rules on gender equality and recruitment procedures as institutional mechanisms affecting the share of women candidates, and (2) the importance of networks of women members as support systems for female candidates within the intra-party environment. By integrating a large-N systematic cross-party analysis with qualitative insights from elite interviews and ethnographic observations, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the intra-party factors that foster or hinder women’s representation in parties’ candidacies, as well as the broader implications of these dynamics for the functioning of democratic institutions.