Who (Dis)likes Whom: Examining the Poles of Affective Polarization Through Open-Ended Survey Responses in Belgium 

Recent research on affective polarization increasingly highlights conflicts involving non-partisan groups, raising critical questions about the boundaries of polarization. This paper addresses these questions using open-ended survey responses from a recent Belgian panel survey (N = 9407), where respondents were asked to describe groups they “like” and “dislike”. This unique data source allows us to empirically investigate the targets of dislike, abductively coding answers by relying on existing theoretical classifications, including partisan versus non-partisan groups, issue-based groups, and the traits attributed to them. By coding and categorizing these responses, we reveal patterns in the types of groups that respondents "like" and "dislike". Further, our analysis tackles three key questions. First, does affective polarization necessarily entail mutual dislike between two groups? We examine whether respondents’ liked and disliked groups mirror each other in terms of their (non-)partisan nature and issue-relatedness. Second, who dislikes whom? Linking open-ended responses with socio-demographics, political attitudes, and voting behaviour enables us to identify trends in liked and disliked identities across different socio-political groups. Third, how do the open-ended responses align with more structured survey metrics like thermometer ratings used to measure polarization? Specifically, we assess how a person’s attitudes as expressed on the thermometer scales is related to their types of answer on the open question. By unpacking these dynamics, this study advances our understanding of the complex interplay between partisanship, social identities, and affective polarization, offering new insights into how individuals perceive and categorize their political and social world.