United in faith, divided by sect: Anti-blasphemy collective action and large-scale violence in Pakistan

Blasphemy against Islamic holy figures is a criminal offense punishable by death in Pakistan, repeatedly sparking concern for large-scale violence as blasphemy cases are often settled extra-judicially. But despite the presence of various extremist religious groups in Pakistan supporting strict punishment against alleged blasphemers, only a few mobilize collectively when the blasphemy law or its execution is threatened. This suggests that ideological support for sustaining or toughening blasphemy laws cannot reliably lead to faith-based collective action. Instead, faith-based collective action tends to be distributed informally based on sectarian identities. For instance, while all religious groups may feel outraged when revered Islamic figures are disrespected, only Barelvi groups tend to publicly protest it. This schism between deep resonance with religious issues, such as blasphemy, and acting out on affective commitments is also reflected in the enactment of "jihad," where Deobandi groups vastly outnumber actors from other sectarian affiliations. A discrete division of labor or spheres of influence appears to exist between sectarian groups, and they may not always overlap. This paper aims to understand the functional separation of faith-based collective action in Pakistan by examining intra-group perspectives on the issue of blasphemy in three different sectarian groups: the Sunni Tehreek (of Barelvi affiliation), the Tableeghi Jamaat (of Deobandi affiliation), and the Majlis Wahdat-e-Muslimeen (of Shia affiliation). By examining why opportunities for collective action sometimes emerge around specific actors from a large pool of contenders, this study highlights the importance of identity-forming issues for collective action undertaken by faith-based groups. Religious groups do not typically organize around all belief-related grievances, but rather only those that strike at the very core of their identity. Identity-forming issues vary among sects, and their hot contestation between sectarian rivals often leads to violent incidents. Yet, the ambiguity about their "fundamental" nature as well as inter-group competition prevent sectarian rivals from engaging in spectacular displays of large-scale violence. In making this argument, the study challenges the bogeyman of "religious conservatism" and "religious extremism" as driving factors for faith-based collective action or large-scale violence in Pakistan and adopts a more granular engagement with sectarian identities and their impact on faith-based mobilization. The paper will explicitly highlight the countervailing impact of sectarian differences on the scope of faith-based collective action as well as its potential for suppressing large-scale violence.