Civil society has been a central part of attempts to enhance the European Union’s democratic legitimacy in the post-Maastricht era. The European Commission in particular has taken a proactive role in the development and maintenance of a European civil society – a transnational community of organisations reflecting interests found within European society – which has provided a constituency-in-waiting for an institution whose justification under the treaties – to uphold the European interest – has sometimes seemed rather nebulous. The organisations for their part have not been passive spectators in this process but have responded to opportunity structures to constitute themselves as transnational actors and expand their influence on EU decision-making. The concept of participation and models of participatory democracy have often been employed as descriptive-analytical tools to good effect but encourage a focus on observable behaviour and the act of participation rather than necessarily its content or the meaning behind it. There is much in the rhetoric of the Commission, and in the ways that organisations present themselves which suggests that the concept of representation may offer additional explanatory value. The claim to be able to effectively ‘make present’ certain interests found within European society has been a key part of organisations’ demands for their voice to be heard, and the Commission has defined the representation of interests found in society as a key justification for consultation. Accordingly, this paper asks whether the concept of political representation can help to explain the contribution of civil society organisations to democracy in the European Union.
The multi-faceted nature of the concept of representation means that it can potentially capture diverse elements of the civil society picture. On the one hand the idea of civil society refers to a normative project whereby society can structure itself and co-ordinate its actions; and on the other hand it refers to the activities of free associations that operate free from institutions of the state but which nevertheless influence or determine the course of state policy. The idea of symbolic representation is employed in reflecting upon how a transnational community might be formed in part around the idea that interests made present can only be solved on a transnational basis: a community that would demand and in turn legitimate transnational action. The idea of substantive representation encourages a focus on what organisations do in making interests present, including a consideration of processes of authorisation and accountability inside the organisations and the existence of political structures and mechanisms for ensuring equal and effective chances to make voices heard in decision-making. The analysis therefore operates on two ‘levels’, taking into account the fairly specific process level, which addresses inputs and outputs in decision-making processes; and the broader system level which is about the creation of a political community.
In order to answer these questions the paper looks at the role of civil society organisations in making environmental issues present. In particular the example of environmental NGOs and think-tanks in climate change politics is analysed, utilising data from semi-structured interviews.
